Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment

urinary Tract Infection (UTI) Ca work forbiddens and Treat manpowertUrinary piece of ground is the just around gross organ to deliver infection which occurs from neonates to geriatrics. It account for 8.3 million doctor visit each year and represent the second most common infection in the serviceman body (Sumaira Z beef et al.,2009). By the advancement of age, the attack of UTI increases in men cod to prostate enlargement and neurogenic bladder. Recurrent infections ar common and will pourboire to irreversible damage of the kidneys, which result in renal hypertension and renal failure in severe cases. In companionship, women atomic number 18 to a greater extent than pr mavin to gene prescribe UTI and 20% of women experience a iodine episode of UTI during their life conviction and 3% of women may w be more than one episode of UTI per year. Pregnancy also makes them more sensitive to infection. Catheter-associated UTI is a trenchant problem and bacteriuria is found in 5% of catheterised patients (Das R N et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection refers to the presence of microbes in the urinary tract. The frequency of pathogens varies upon hospitalization, intimate intercourse, and catheterization (Getenet B et al., 2011). Ab erupt 150 million people are diagnosed for having urinary tract infection with a very high fortune of morbidity and mortality (Raza S et al., 2011).Urinary tract infection is found more in women when compared with men the reason may be payable to anatomical reference structure or because of the urothelial mucosa attachment to the muco polysaccharide lining or due to other factors (Tampekar et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection is second only to respiratory tract in acquiring microbial infections (Raza S et al., 2011).Classification of Urinary Tract InfectionUrinary tract infection may be classified as upper urinary tract infection and lower urinary tract infection. According to the septic site, if its bladder hence it s called cystitis, if the bacterium is in the kidney then its called pyelonephrites, if its in urine the term bacteriuria is used (Getenet B et al., 2011). Manifestation of genitourinary tract infection vary from mild symptomatic cystitis to pyelonephrites and finally to septicaemia. Pyelonephrites are the sequelae of untreated or patheticly treated lower UTI and the most common cause of hospital admission during pregnancy and which lead to preterm labour(Jamie et al .,2002). Urinary tract infections are further divided into complicated and uncomplicated infections. Uncomplicated infections are those with no front instrumentations and complicated infections are those that have done instrumentations much(prenominal)(prenominal) as indwelling, urethral catheters and it include structural and functional abnormalities (Getnet B et al., 2011). Again UTI is classified as community acquired and hospital acquired (nosocomial). In community acquired UTI single species of bacteria is found and the organisms are Escherichia coli, P.mirabilis, Pseudomonas. Hospital acquired UTI is often due to multi drug resistant strain in this similar organism but greater preponderance of Streptococci or Klebsiella is seen (Sujit K Chaudhuri., 2001).Defnition of the precise terms in Urinary Tract InfectionSignificant bacteriuriaIt is be as the presence of 100000 bacteria per mL of urine.Asymptomatic bacteriuriaIt is outlined as significant bacteriuria in infected patients with the absence of symptomsCystitisIt is defined as a syndrome of frequency, dysuria, urgency in which the infection is limited to bladder and urethra.Urethral syndromeIn Urethral syndrome a conventional pathogen is present and its a syndrome of dysuria, frequency in the absence of significant bacteriuria.Acute pyelonephritesIt is an acute infection in one or both the kidneys.Chronic pyelonephritesIt may be due to the continuous excretion of bacteria from kidney or the recurring infection of the renal cell or due to a specific pathology of both kidneys.Relapse and reinfectionRelapse is defined has the restoration of infection by the same organism which intiated original infection. Reinfection is defined as the recurrence of infection by a new organism (Roger walker et al., 2003).Several studies have demonstrated geographical variability of Pathogens occurrence among UTI inpatient and outpatient is limited by the predominance of gram negative organisms. The most frequent pathogen isolated is Escherichia coli which accounts for about 50% to 90% of all uncomplicated infections (Tampekar et al., 2006). In complicated urinary tract infection and hospitalized patients, organisms such as Enterococcus faecalis and highly resistant gram negative rods including Pseudomonas are most common (Getenet B et al., 2011).Aetiology and microbiologyThe most common causative organism of uncomplicated UTI is Escherichia coli accounting more than 85% cases, followed by staphylococcus saprophyticus (coagulase-negat ive staphylococcus) accounting to nearly 15%.The pathogens in complicated UTI or nosocomical infections are Escherichia coli accounting 50%, Proteus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococci and Enterococci (Barbara et al., 2008).A very rare cause of urinary tract infection includes anaerobic bacteria and fungi and sometimes viruses which are detected by subtlety and nucleic acid amplification method.Abnormalities of the urinary tract such congenital anomalies of ureter, renal stones, enlargement of prostrate in men are other causes for urinary tract infection (Roger walker et al., 2003).Pathophysiology of UTI (Barbara et al., 2008)The urinary tract includes two pairs of kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. Urinary tract infection are defined as infections at any take aim of the urinary tract which include,Upper urinary tract infection (Pyelonephrites)Lower urinary tract infection ( Cystitis, Urethritis) f follow out of preceding(prenominal) two The bacteria causing UTIs originate from bowel flora of the host. It can be acquired via three possible routesAscendingHaematogenousLymphatic pathwaysIn females the swindle length of the urethra and proximity to the perirectal area lead to the colonization of bacteria. The organisms enter the bladder from urethra and multiply and can ascend the ureters and ascend to the kidneys.Factors that determine the dumbfoundment of urinary tract infections areThe size of the inoculumsVirulence of the microorganismsCompetency of the natural host defense mechanisms.Important virulence factors of bacteria are their ability to adhere to urinary epithelial cells by fimbriae. Others include haemolysin, a cytotoxic protein produced by bacteria which lyses a large range of cells including erythrocytes, monocytes, and polymorph nuclear leukocytes.Clinical presentationPain or intense when you using bathroomFever, tiredness or shakinessAn urge to use the bathroom often and oftenPressure in the lower b elly piddle that smells bad and looks cloudy or reddishNausea or back painLower urinary tract infection Dysuria, urgency, nocturia, Increased frequency of micturitionUpper urinary tract infection Fever, flank pain, vomiting malaise.Clinical investigation (Roger walker et al., 2003)Laboratory diagnosis is successful when an uncontaminated urine pattern is obtained for microscopy and culture. The various(prenominal) patients need to instruct to produce mid stream urine sample (MSU) and then its collected into a sterile aliquot and then transfereered into the standard pot and finally is submitted to the laboratory.DipsticksIt is a rapid testing for urinary blood, nitrites, proteins and leukocyte esterase. The colour changes are assessed.MicroscopyIt is the first step in the diagnosis of urinary tract infections. piddle is placed on a slide and then covered with a cover slip and is examined under lens 40x.CultureThe patients urine is streaked in agar medium and is incubated for 24 hours at 370C and identify the single bacterial species which as initiated the particular infection.Treatment of UTINon specific treatmentUrinary tract infected patients are advised to drink a lot of fluids, this practice is on the basis that the bacteria is removed by frequent bladder emptying. Urinary analgesics such sodium citrate which will alkanize urine is used with antibiotics as an adjunct therapy (Roger walker et al., 2003).Pharmacological treatment of UTIAntibiotics are commonly used in Urinary tract infections. The modes of action of antibiotics may be,Inhibition of Bacterial Cell Wall deductive reasoningInhibition of Cytoplasmic Membrane FunctionInhibition of Nucleic Acid SynthesisInhibition of Protein SynthesisControl of Microbial EnzymesSubstrate Competition with an Essential Metabolite (Barar F. S. K., 2007)UTI are mainly treated with broad spectrum Cephalosporins, Fluroquinolones, and Aminoglycosides. Cephalosporins are cell wall inhibitors which are commonly use d for treating urinary tract infections caused by Gram negative organisms. It include Cefotaxime, Cephradine, Ceftazidime etc. Flouroquinolones act by inhibiting the action at law of DNA gyrase and topo isomerase which are the enzymes needed for bacterial DNA replication and it includes Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Enoxacin. Aminoglycoside act by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis it include Gentamycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin etc (Farhat Ullah et al., 2009).Oral therapy in urinary tract infection is Sulphonamides congresswoman (TMP-SMX) PenicillinS which include Ampicillin, Amoxicillin- clavulanic acid. Cephalosporins example Cephalexin, Cephadrine. Tetracyclines example Doxycycline, Minocycline. Fluroquinolones example Levofloxacin, Nitrofurantine. Parentral therapy is done with Carbapenems example Imipenem-Cilastatin. Aminglycosides example Amikacin, Gentamycin (Barbara et al., 2008).2.9 Treatments of infections of urinary tract(S.D Seth et al., 1999)Treatment of Lower Urinary Tra ct InfectionsSingle-dose Trimethoprim -Sulphamethoxazole (400mg+2g) are used to treat acute uncomplicated episode of cystitis.Acute urethritis can be treated with Doxycycline 100 mg twice a daylight for 7 days.Single dose therapy must be restricted in patients where symptoms are present for slight than 10 days. In more complicated cases vii days therapy with antibiotics should be given and alternatively broader spectrum antibiotics are used.Treatment of upper Urinary Tract Infections10-14 day course of Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole, Trimethoprim in a single dose, Cephalosporins, or Aminoglycoside gives adequate therapy. If recurrence occurs then the patient should be investigated for calculi and other urologic disease.Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections during PregnancyAcute cystitis during pregnancy is treated with Amoxicillin, Nitrofurantoin,or Cephalosporin for 4 days.Acute pyelonephtites is managed generally with Cephalosporin or extended spectrum Penicillin.Treatment for Recurrent Urinary Tract InfectionsIn this a drug capable of achieving high create from raw material meanness is needed.7-14 days high treatment is given.Treatment of Asymptomatic InfectionsAsymptomatic bacteriuria is confirmed by a minimum of two positive cultures. An oral therapy for 1 week with the most sensitive agent is given primarly.Treatment for Catheter Associated Urinary Tract InfectionAsymptomatic bacteriuria in catheterized patients is non treated if they are not at a high risk of sepsis.Treatment for ProstatitisThe pathogen found in this is mainly Gram Negative Bacilli. Trimethoprim- Sulphamethoxazole, Erythromycin, Ciprofloxacin can penetrate prosthetic tissue and are mostly effective. If Cocci are found cloxacillin may be given.Chemoprophylaxis of Urinary Tract InfectionsIt is indicated to patients with a very frequent symptomatic infection. A single dose Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole (80mg TMP+400 mg SMZ) or Nitrofurantoin (50 mg) is found to be effective.Drug d efense (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Barar F.S.K 2010).Bacteria are said to be resistant to an antibiotic if the maximal level of that antibiotic which can be tolerated by the host does not alter the bacterial proceeds. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics may be both Natural or Acquired.Natural resistanceNatural resistance is genetically determined and it depends upon the absence of a metabolic process which is affected by the respective bacteria.Acquired resistanceAcquired resistance is the resistance which is seen in a previously sensitive bacterial pathogen and it involves a very stable genetic change which is heritable from one generation to another generation. The common mechanism is by play, adaptation, or by the development of multiple drug resistance which is as a result of transfer of genetic material from bacteria to bacteria by transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Microbial species which are normally responsive to a particular drug may develop more virulen t, resistant strains due to,Genetic revisalsSpontaneous mutations of DNADNA transfer of drug resistanceB) Altered expression of proteins in organism allowance of target siteDecreased accumulationEnzymtic InactivationA) Genetic alterationsAcquired antibiotic is due to the temporary or permanent alteration of organisms genetic information.Spontaneous mutation of DNAChromosomal alteration occurs by insertion or substitution of one or more nucleotides within the genome. The mutation may be fatal to the cells. If the cells survive it will replicate and transmit its mutated properties to other cells.DNA transfer of drug resistanceIt occurs due to DNA transfer from one bacterium to other. underground gene are plasmid mediated and can be incorporated into host bacterial DNA.B) Altered expression of proteins in organismIt occurs by renewing of mechanisms, such as a lack of or alteration in target site, increased efflux of the drug or by the expression of antibiotic inactivating enzymes.Mo dification of target sitesThe change in the antibiotic target site through mutation can lead to resistance. Example, S pneumonia resistance to distinguished lactums involves alteration in one or more of major bacterial penicillin binding protein.Decreased accumulationIf the drug is unable to attain access to the site of its action to kill the organisms resistance confers.Enzymic inactivationThe ability to destroy antibiotic agent by the pathogen can confer resistance. Antibiotic inactivating enzymes includea) Beta lactamases (Hydrolytically inactivate beta lactum ring of penicillin)b) Acetyl transferases (Transfer an acetyl group to antibiotics)c) Esterases (Hydrolyze the lactone ring of macrolides)Antibiotic toleranceThe term antibiotic tolerance is used when the antibiotic merely inhibits its multiplication and growth but no longer kills the microbial pathogen. Tolerant microbial pathogen starts to grow after antibiotics are stopped.Cross resistanceIt is defined as a phenomenon in which bacteria resistant to one drug is resistant to another drug to which the bacteria is not exposed before.Examples are Neomycin and Kanamycin.Pr evetion of drug resistance (K.D Tripathy 2006)Indiscriminate and prolonged use of antibiotics should be stopped it will minimise resistant strains so there will be less chance to preferentially propagateRapidly acting and narrow spectrum antibiotics should be preferred. Broad spectrum is used when a proper one cannot be determinedWhen prolonged therapy is needed use combination of Anti microbial agentsTreatment should be intensively done for the infections by organism which develops resistance Example, Staphylococcus aureus.Evaluation of urinary tract pathogen and principles of antibiotic dosing (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Sharma H L et al 2011)The traditional way for the evaluating urinary tract pathogens is urine culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing. The major drawback of current microbiological analysis is time laps e of more than a day (Vesna Ivancic et al., 2008). The five important characteristic which influence frequency of dosing of all antibiotics are,Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)It is the concluding concentration of antibiotic that inhibit bacterial growth. To have effective therapy the clinically obtainable antimicrobial concentration should be greater than MIC.Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic agent that results in 99.9% decline in colony count after incubation.Concentration dependent killing effect CDKEAntibiotics are most effective when higher blood concentration is reached periodically. These bactericidal antibiotics are said to be concentration -dependent killing (CDK). In drugs whose killing action is CDK the extent and rate of killing increases with increase in drug concentration. Examples Amino glycosides, Fluroquinolones.Time dependent killing effect TDKEAntibiotics are most effective when the blood concentrations are hold above the minimum inhibitory concentration for the maximum long duration possible. These bactericidal antibiotics exhibit time -dependent killing (TDK). In drugs whose killing action is (TDK) the activity of antibiotics continue as long as serum concentration are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration. Examples Vancomycin, Beta Lactums.Post -antibiotic effect PAEA suppression of bacterial growth which is persistent after a brief exposure to antibiotics agents is said to be post-antibiotic effect. In post antibiotic effect the suppression or inhibition of bacterial growth is found even when the bacterial agent is no longer present or its concentration is very less than MIC. Examples of drugs which show significant PAE are Tetracycline, Amino glycosides.The aetiology of UTI and the antibiotic susceptibility of uropathogens have been changing over the past decade. The extensive uses of antibiotics have invariably resulted in the development of resistance which ha s become major problem in recent years. Antibiotic treatment which are of shorter duration than required, and the treatment administered without considering antibiotic and organism esthesia as resulted in more resistance in bacterial strains (Mohammed Akram et al., 2007), (Eshwarappa M et al., 2011). To find out the most effective empirical treatment, investigating the epidemiology of UTI is a thoroughgoing commence to guide the expected interventions (Getnet B et al., 2011). Since the distribution of microbial pathogens and their susceptibility is variable regionally and it is necessary to have a knowledge of uropathogens and sensitivity in a particular setting (Muhammed Naeem et al., 2010).The selection of antimicrobial agents require the following knowledge,The organisms identityThe organisms susceptibility to particular agentThe site of the infectionPatient factorsThe synthetic rubber of the agentThe cost of therapyHowever, in critically ill patients need immediate treatment i.e. the therapy is initiated soon after specimens for laboratory analysis have been obtained before the culture result and selection of drug is influenced by the site of infection and patients history or by the association of particular organismPrevention and prophylaxis (Roger Walker et al).Cranberry juiceIt has been thought beneficial for the prevention of urinary tract infections. The benefit of drinking cranberry juice instead of antibiotics has reduced resistance of bacteria.Antibiotic prophylaxisIt is indicated to patients who are having reinfections. If the reinfection is after sexual intercourse then after intercourse a single dose of antibiotics is taken. In other cases low dose is beneficial.Patient counselling of UTIDrinking wad of clear liquids will keep urine diluted.Good personal hygiene following urination and bowel movements. Cleaning self front to back from vagina to anus. attain frequently to wash out bacteria that may be present, avoid holding urine for prolong ed periods of time.Urinate after intercourse to wash out bacteria that may have been introduced into the urethra.Avoid wearing tight jeans, wet bathing suites.Present scenario of UTINew studies reveal that the risk of urinary tract infection is high among boys who has not circumcised and had a visible urethral meatus.Another line of UTI seek has indicated that women who are non-secretors of certain blood group antigens may be more prone to recurrent urinary tract infections because the cells lining the vagina and urethra may allow bacteria to attach more easily.Scientists have worked out an effective new approach to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) by dumping antibiotics. It involves so-called FimH antagonists, which are non antibiotic compounds and would not contribute to the growing problem of pathogens resistant to antibiotics.Barriers to integration Refugees in new countriesBarriers to integration Refugees in new countriesBackground 1.1 Settlement of Refugees in Australi aAustralia has been settling refugees for more than a century. As per official records, settlement history begins in 1839, pick outing the arrival of Lutherans. Nevertheless, Australias modern approach to refugee settlement began with a new national refugee policy in 1977. It has, now, become a designated resettlement demesne for refugees and it receives a designated number of refugees on annual basis as on the agreement with UNHCR. According to the best estimates available, 2009-10 was the year in which Australia, since becoming an independent nation, passed the 750,000 mark in its intake of refugees and humanitarian entrants.In recent years, the incidents of persecution, conflict, generalized madness and human rights violation have significantly increased in Democratic republic of the Congo, Mali, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the border amidst Sudan and South Sudan. Surprisingly Australia has reduced its Refugee and Humanitarian Program to 13, 750 places while the re is a considerable gap between resettlement needfully and available places worldwide.At this point, it is important to acknowledge current refugee settlement issues in Australia. In general, settlement issues fall into four main categories as followsIn accession to these main categories, if we go further deeper into the context, it is obvious to see another horizon of challenges fall into following areasFamily and YouthLegal and FinancialCommunity RelationsSecuring a meaningful employment is a truly challenging task among refugees mainly because of their lack of knowledge about Australian work place culture, no prior work experience in Australia, inadequate services to support employment transitions, discrimination, racism, lack of English proficiency, inability to get access to job market, and problems in recognizing oversea skills, experience and qualification.Finding an affordable house becomes a serious issue due to the competition in private rental market. Renting and retai ning the house have equal consideration as finding the house. Discrimination and racism appear again as opposing factors. Moreover, financial hardship of refuges, size of families, their lack of Australian rental history, and unawareness about tenancy rights and responsibilities can be said as reasons for housing difficulties during their settlement.Educational barriers are different system of education, different languages, inadequate induction and support, high illiteracy among refugee communities, disruption of schooling for young people and enrollment base on age rather than knowledge. Inconsistency in policies and practices results in ignoring needs of young people with disrupted education.Health issues are normally caused by family separation, their prior experience and trauma, lack of social networks and consequent isolation. wholly of the above issues (Employment, Housing and Education) negatively affect the health and mental wellbeing of these communities. We can notice a great demand for interpreters in health sector since they are often required in counseling and consultation.Integrational conflicts and cultural shocks attempt to damage family relations and peoples values. For an example, younger ones adapt more readily and it leads to fault and confusion within families. Parenting becomes more challenging. Cultural clashes affect spousal relationships in a negative way and ends up in separation and divorces. Domestic violence and family breakdowns seem to be common in refugee communities. On the other hand, there are serious concerns about unaccompanied minors and single mothers with many children. When it comes to youth, due to their prior refugee experience, limited education or work experience, cultural dislocation and loss of established social networks lead them to frustration. Resulting frustration has its own dangerous consequences such as involving in il reasoned activities.Most of the refugees who come from war torn countries see the p olice as an oppressive authority. This viewpoint often creates misconceive between police and refugee communities. Racism does its part to damage this relationship worse than we assume. Refugees are in need for legal advices regarding their visa process, financial arrangements and documentations. Cultural incompetency of legal advisers and refugees lack of knowledge of legal systems can be highlighted under this area.Community relations between refugee communities and host communities are influenced by myth about refugees, cultural mis intellect, discrimination and racism. These factors prevent both communities to create wider interactions for better understanding between them. Without a positive cooperation from local community, it is difficult to succeed in settlement.All these main categories and areas of settlement issues repeatedly highlight a gap between refugee communities and local community. And a insularity between refugees and local systems is also visible. These gap an d detachment practically become great barriers for a smooth integration and successful settlement of refugees in Australia.1.3 Problem AnalysisBased on our background research on the settlement of refugees in Australia, we developed our initial problem tree. It was used as a draft during expert consultations. Its insightfulness helped us finding scatty pieces if information and guided us to further research. Obviously the gap between refugee communities and local community together with local systems directly or either indirectly poses challenges to almost every problem we identified. Therefore, we identified community isolation as our focal problem.Consultation with refugee experts who have refugee backgrounds as well as remarkable experience from working with refugees settling in Victoria, particularly in South East of Melbourne, gave us clear picture of current settlement issues. Some of the case studies based on City of great Dandenong showed us a multiple dimensions of alread y identified problems. Our finalized problem tree, after sorting out the problems, is given below. Public misunderstanding was identified a crucial factor to discrimination. Some of the politicians and media play an important role in creating a negative image for refugees. For an example, if a refugee is accused to be involved in a crime scene, they flash the news by highlighting the background of this particular refugee community and paint a red disguise on the rest of the community without considering the consequences. In fact, these sort of careless actions widen the gap between local community and refugee communities. It is evident to see lack of faith among refugees mainly due to cultural alienation, past refugee experience, language incompetency and lack of knowledge of local context and local systems. Considering the cultural alienation, it is happened to be the outcome of disagreement between the unique characteristics of different cultures. Australians can be identified with individualism, lack of social cohesion and materialism whereas most of the refugee communities can be characterized as socialistic societies. Mutual understanding is necessary to promote better understanding of these differences and that requires considerably a long time.Among the effects of community isolation, identity crisis is something which has profound effect even on other effects either directly or indirectly. But, normally, it doesnt get enough attention from settlement programs. Acculturation means that members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of a dominant group. It can be reciprocal but in case of refugees it is only one way. It causes loss of separate cultural identification. People feel a sense of powerlessness as a result. Psychosocial repercussions heavily damage human personality. As a result, refugees look at comprehend threats, it can be either real or even imagined, in their lives and recognize it may require resources we dont have. I t includes threats to their social status, social esteem, bankers acceptance within the society and threat to their self-worth. In long time, all these effects create social discord which is not good for both local community and refugee communities. 1.4 Objective AnalysisAt the end of the objective analysis, we came up with positive results, but not for each of the identified problem statements. We left a enquiry mark for racism as it cant be directly addressed. Nobody is going to accept that they are racist. Therefore, we decided to better leave it totally in the objective tree and reduce its impact indirectly from promoting public understanding. Objective tree was adjusted with some rearrangements with optimistic conditions.Alternative analysis pointed out the ongoing programs and projects by AMES, state government and other service providers in the area of employment, housing, language, education and future promises to improve current refugee and humanitarian programs. At this point, it is important to acknowledge Community Guides Program, Luv-A-Duck project and Ucan3 Youth Program of AMES as well as its support to social enterprises such as Sorghum Sisters, Cultural Cooks and spheric Caf, and support for community initiatives. We noticed lack of attention on the refugees rights and their cultural validity.It was finally decided to promote community engagement by increasing the level of confidence among refugees and creating social embrace with public understanding. Community Engagement will create cultural validity for refugee communities by providing them greater opportunities for social networking. Mutual understanding between local community and refugee communities would have positive impact in long-term and that would consequently bring social harmony in the City of Greater Dandenong.